The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict

This study of African agency in colonial courts and subsequent social conflicts in Africa applied law to establish and maintain its rule. Looking critically at these aspects, I intend to approach Law as a coercive force that assisted colonial state power to help in securing order, enhancing capitalist development, and restructuring of social relations. [1]Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Significantly, I examine how colonialists enforced new sets of rules and regulations to enable a general process of societal and cultural change. This process was a mission of civilization of colonialism. I critically look at how the mission was legitimized by importing Western set of laws that replaced traditional customs and rules. While historians were almost certain that Western laws were assumed to be more civilized, m ajority of colonial societies are still dealing with the effects this process and the legacy of this legal pluralism[2]. In Africa, colonialists enforced dual legal system in which colonialist law was superimposed in existing legal system. However, both sets of law depended on colonial state legal system. The establishment and maintenance of the legal system was a central feature European colonialist for many years. Majority of colonial societies are still dealing with the effects this process and the legacy of this legal pluralism. [3] In this context, I argue that it is important for the reader to understand that law was necessary for establishment of colonial order as it was the central mechanism of defining relationships between state and society. I guess colonial states were able to set boundaries of behaviour and control spectrum of private transactions through both criminal and civil law regulations. [4] More importantly, although the law was vital in the colonizing process, there existed some conflict concerning the ways in which this process actually affected those colonized. The law application of the law in strict sense perpetuated colonial interests and limited demands placed on the colonized land and labour[5].Advertising Looking for term paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More I try to explain how the law was applied by both the colonized and the colonizer to resolve important disputes concerning authority and legitimacy. [6]/sup In addition, I maintain that the entrenched state system of governance include established laws and institutions adopted in African colonies. Historians explore modes of control that recognize customary rules as well as state laws imported from colonizer states. I argue that it is important for historical scholars to understand that customary law referred to the law of colonized people as accepted by colonial administrations. Customary law was es tablished by colonial administrations to guide disputes concerning non Europeans only. Many historians have justified the need by colonial administrations to have customary law as a method of providing autonomy and self governance to people they thought were not ready to appreciate the benefits of civilization. In addition, I argue that customary law enabled colonial powers to use limited human and financial resources to effectively control its conquered territories. Furthermore, I intend to reveal the purpose customary laws were codified by colonial administrations into fixed, formal and written rules enforced by colonial courts. [7] Colonial Courts and Social Conflicts The study of â€Å"Girl Cases: marriage and colonists in Gusiiland, Kenya, 1890-1970† requires people to understand the question of African Agency in colonial courts and the resultant social conflicts. While examining this context, I aim to trace the changes and explain; the intersections of the colonial tren ds in social and legal thinking, colonial administrative policies in Kisii, colonial political economy, and the ideals and actions of individual Gusii people that shaped this history. This study analyzes the importance of African courts, that is, â€Å"the cornerstone to indirect rule by colonies†[8]. Despite the importance of these African courts, little work has been encouraged by historians. Following widely publications in the 1950s and 1960s on African courts, historical appreciation of African law emerged in the 1980s. I argue that colonial administrators sought customary law of each tribe they wished to govern; I feel that indirect rule performed better if officials could implement legitimate laws accepted by those ruled.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whereas most African societies had not adopted an alterable, uncomplicated set of laws, colonial officials were not deterred. The study relies heavily on both civil and criminal records from the council of elders that served Gusiiland. The council of elders adjudicated many cases every year. Shadle examined court cases relating to marriage disputes in Gusii, Kenya. The scholar was more concerned with criminal cases of adultery, elopement (runaway Women), indecent assault and abduction. I use the court records to effectively apply to uncover the question of African agency in colonial courts and resultant social conflicts[9]. Eloping (Run Away) Women and African Societies Since historians indicate years of interwar as problematic for African women the earliest period of colonization, African women found colonial masters sympathetic to their suffering[10]. I deduce that this scenario changed in the early 1920s and 1930s. History indicates that colonialists had discovered women in rural areas as important for agricultural pr oduction. Prior to this period, women were important for social and physiological reproduction of men for wage labour. I conclude that they were confined to their rural farms to serve colonial interests as well as rural patriarchs[11]. From the study, I also reveal that; rural patriarchs at that time sought avenues to maintain authority over their women (wives and daughters). For these colonialists to use customary law (indirect rule) to maintain social stability and keep colonial rule, they required African rulers’ (senior men) to operate. They discovered the importance of cooperating with African elders in maintaining social order. African elders similarly asked for state help to control their womenfolk. Historians allude that colonial administrations strengthened these laws and monitored women movements with the sole aim of establishing authority and loyalty of African elders. Historians argue that African courts were established by colonial states to solve intra-African c onflicts. African courts adopted customary laws which were interpreted by senior elders as court officials in ways interestingly beneficial to themselves. I agree that these courts applied their authority to regulate the actions of women and youthful men. [12]Advertising Looking for term paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This historiography tries to prove that the subordinated under colonialism contested efforts that empowered their superiors. As we examine the studies of peasants, slaves and workers during colonialism in Africa, we realise the majority contested exploitation by either Europeans of fellow Africans. As scholars project, every power nexus expects the subordinated to contest the relations that empower their superiors. Elaborate studies of peasants, slaves and workers proved that Africans resisted their exploitation, whether by Europeans or other Africans. [13] Abductions In this book, I wish to examine the effects of colonialism and how it was felt in Gusiiland, Kenya. I believe, colonialists thought there rule functioned only with the support of â€Å"tribal† leaders[14]. The necessity of such thinking will become apparent when we consider; â€Å"temperament of colonial administrators, their social and educational backgrounds, made them to appreciate strong patriarchal authori ty.† [15] Men in Gusiiland resorted to abduction to acquire wives in the later 1800s. [16] I argue that this evoked pitched conflicts between clans in Gusiiland. An abductor capable to hold his catch long enough so his gambles pay off. Historians allude that accumulating bride-wealth in the 1890s was virtually difficult as disease destroyed large herds; as a result this led to escalation on the number of abductions in Gusiiland. [17] After 1900, the number of cattle rose and marriage became affordable. Consequently, the number of abductions decreased remarkably. Ultimately, abductors and men taking in runaway women had the intension of marriage. Abductors employed the mode of violence and rape against their subjects. Shadle avers that they threatened and used physical assault to break the woman’s spirit. Popular brutal means they used included punches, knives, clubs, and others on women. [18] Besides brutality, abductors raped their victims as well. They sought to impre gnate their victims as soon as possible. Although premarital pregnancy did not ruin a girl’s chance of marriage, it was impaired. The affected women were intimidated through unjust branding. Abductees who became pregnant through this brutality so few options. Majority resigned to the forced unions. As court records reveal admission of one woman, after having been abducted for three months, â€Å"now I am pregnant and I don’t know what to do.† [19] Still in a desperate position, she later admitted agreeing to marry the abductor even though he had no cattle to settle the marriage. In essence, I deduce that maintenance of encouraged patriarch authority created marital conflicts in Gusiiland. Colonial State Representatives and marriage Disputes This study of â€Å"colonial state representatives and marriage disputes in Gusiiland† requires readers to examine the powers granted to chiefs, headsmen and other indirect rulers that made it possible for men looking for their abducted women easy. I approach the study by explaining that there was no overreaching authority in Gusii highlands during pre-colonial period; and this made it difficult for tracking down women who had run away to any clans. The power conferred to colonial state representatives enabled men to move with relative safety between clans when tracking down the runaway women. Litigants were encouraged by administrators to meet the council of elders (etureti) before going to court (ritongo)[20]. The status of the council of elders was contradictory. The colonial administration viewed the council of elders as a resuscitation of indigenous authorities; Gusii people on the other hand, regarded the council of elders as an invention of the colonial era. The book notes that they continued to seek guidance of their home elders (abanyamaiga). This elders pre-dated colonial rule and included all the elders from the lineage. In contrast, the council of elders were few, elected and appointe d as headsmen. They also had a jurisdiction of a large geographical area rather than lineages.[21] The study of â€Å"Slavery and the Birth of an African City† reiterates that colonial administrations established law to enable them engage with Africans who resisted access to resources, labour, and colonial power and authority[22]. I believe Africans contested European morality and culture. In the process of this interaction, Africans experienced the realities of colonialism. In away, both Africans and Europeans shaped the law and institutions during colonial period. Historians allude that Africans used law as a resource of resistance against colonialism. By looking at this study, readers should discover that they used legal rules and procedures as weapons of African resistance.[23]/sup Buoyed with African resistance to direct intervention and in the interest of checking the costs of administration, indirect rule by colonialists retreated from aggressive legal and governmental reform. [24] Colonial masters still endeavoured to civilize African institutions gently and through remote control. They did not wish to rush the process to avoid the risk of losing the stability of native society. The native society had political and social organization that was well ordered. In this system, all members had definite series of responsibilities to one another. Thus, the British administrator was then tasked with responsibility of reforming indigenous administration from within indigenous institutions. [25] Indirect rule was appropriate to the British to provide a solution to the challenge of administering the vast African empire. A wave of administrative reforms encouraged the spread of native administration across the British Empire. The historical account of this reforms incorporated indigenous systems of law and government, and this helped identify these indigenous systems and governing through local authorities. [26 This also required colonial administrator to i dentify pliable candidates. Roberts and Mann historical account found the British social anthropologists ready to tackle challenges. They found Africans to be best suited to serve the British, due rewards that accompanied the office. I discovered that native administration was easy to implement where stable states existed. However, the system created difficulties in areas as well. Indirect rule in practice encouraged instability. Mann and Roberts note that, although colonial administrators failed to notice it, colonialists imposed themselves on societies engrossed in tussles over leadership and power and the terms under which they were executed. The British built their colonial rule on conflict and change through traditional systems of authority as central to their strategies. [27] Some of the kind of authorities the British sought did not exist in some places. Where local rulers could not be found by administrators, they established them, for instance; the Igbo of Nigeria. In Igbo land, the British established native administration around Macdonald and Moor’s warrant chiefs. They reaffirmed there executive authority as well as judicial authority. Combining these responsibilities and resting them in single individuals went contrary to Igbo pre-colonial political systems[28]. As a result, authorities in Igbo-land lacked legitimacy of their counterparts in Northern Nigeria. The British social anthropologist sent to unmask the source of Aba women’s war, blamed in part the enforcement of indirect rule. [29] According to the anthropologist, native authorities were seen to be more powerful than pre-colonial village councils. In addition, these authorities used their judicial and executive powers to serve their personal interests. This generated widespread hostility. Women in Igbo-land protested when chiefs were empowered to collect taxes. [30] History provides that British were not the only ones who incorporated Africans into colonial law and governmen t. The Portuguese, French and Belgians as well incorporated Africans into their colonial law and government. The French West African government faced a similar conflict faced by the British administration when its indirect rule model resulted to Aba women’s conflict in South-eastern Nigeria. [31] The French also faced conflicts over authority and customs as it codified native jurisdictions and procedures in the French West African government. The period that followed immediately colonial conquests witnessed sizeable migration, urbanization and social change. I am confident that this resulted in rapid growth in urban centres and reorganization in rural societies of different ethnic groups. These groups engaged in domestic relationships, and took their grievances to native courts. The government introduced laws specifying customs prevailed in different circumstances in response to growing number of civil conflicts over marriage, divorce, inheritance and succession fronted by li tigants practicing different customs. Nevertheless, it was not easy to find qualified assessors to help both Africans and Europeans who presided over the tribunals[32]. In sum, we must know that the British and the French adopted the policy of governing their colonies through local systems of law. This became an ideological template to the British and French for the transformation of African societies that conformed to their model of colonial rule. I discovered that the executive and judicial authority was linked by this template. The competence of native authorities depended in the concept of indirect rule. Yet, customary law was established out of collaboration of Africans who sought to establish new forms of access to resources and labour. In addition, Europeans were looking for local authorities to occupy positions generated by their concepts of African societies. [33] Accordingly, the study portrays colonial beliefs as not standing alone. They faced African representatives and their own administrators at every point. The need of colonial administrators to rule their subjects through native legal and political systems produced opportunities for indigenous people through custom representation. Colonial administrators strived to civilize African institutions through indirect rule. [34] The study of â€Å"Litigants and Household African Disputes in French Soudan† on the other hand, takes a historical look at the relationship between the formations of a new system of native courts in the French Soudan in 1905. It also examines how women responded to this new system of native courts. Further, it enlightens readers to understand how the French colonial government charged with responsibility of managing the operations of these courts was mesmerized with the vast numbers of women requiring divorce. Two interpretations are provided as to why African women through these new courts sought divorce during the early colonial period. As a result, this influenced c ourt practices and drove native policy. The first interpretation explains many cases of women seeking divorce due to wretched circumstances in marriage; and second interpretation provided divorce as undermining the authority of the household head and family stability.[35] Women Initial Reactions to the New Courts The French administrators were caught off guard by the vast numbers of women requiring divorces when new courts were implemented in 1905. [36] The court records available indicate frequent incidences of divorce cases sought by women before the provincial tribunal. Women in the French Soudan realized initially that the new courts addressed their grievances. The new courts acted favorably to them as they were able to accept their requests to end marriages they did not prefer. Plaintiffs needing divorce in the French Soudan were required to articulate their reasons for needing to dissolve their marriages. [37] Reasons such as abandonment, mistreatment, non-payment of bride wea lth, spouse illnesses, incompatibility and others were cited as the main trigger for divorce[38]. The examination of the history of custom and Islamic law in the native courts of the French Soudan looks at customary and Islamic family law in native courts in relation to establishment of new courts in 1905. [39] By this I was able to trace emergence of these conflicts to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. We also discover that reforms in French colonial policies and subsequent revolutionary reforms occurred in France at that period. The study examines extensively the conflicts as a result of French colonial policy, and looks at how African litigants applied new courts to confound expectations of their colonial master. [40] This study requires readers to comprehend the colonial legal system as established in 1903 and implemented in 1905. The legal system had procedural problems affecting legal policy and cultural issues in the West African colonial establishment[41]. I argue that the established legal system presented thoughts harbored by the French administrators in relation to Islamic law and also African culture. Sharia law aspects in this law enabled custom and Muslim family law to function together and also guided on how non-Muslims solved their disputes. [42] It also provides procedure for African judges in making judgments. They did not put into consideration the extent of African customs variability. Furthermore, we discover that they did not anticipate litigants to new courts would cause the need for cultural strategies. Historically, colonial legal system was established to enforce uniformity and regularity in administration of justice in the French Soudan. I believe the system mandated establishment of courts and provide regular forms of reporting. While Richard Roberts suggested â€Å"codification of customs to allow use of customs to solve problems†, this was not fully realized[43] . Ii is necessary to understand that the new c ourts could not complete improvisation. More importantly, I argue, the colonial administration while establishing the new legal system did not project the enormity of social changes. The system was established on social changes that were profound. It politicized the courts by establishing new opportunities for litigants to apply native courts to solve disputes in new ways. [44] Bibliography Mann, Kristin. 2007. Slavery and the Birth of an African City, Lagos, 1760-1900. Indiana: Indiana UP, 2007. Roberts, Mann K. 1991. Introduction: Law in Colonial Africa. London: Heinemann. Robert, Richard. 2005. Litigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts in the French Soudan. London: Heinemann. Shadle, Brett. Girl Cases: Marriage and Colonialism in Gusiiland. London: Heinemann Footnotes Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 8. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 4. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 8. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann, 2006), xxi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvii.. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxv. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvii. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxiii. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxiv. Mann Kristin. 2007. Slavery and the birth of an African City (Indiana: Indianapolis UP, 2007), 4. Roberts Richards and M ann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 3. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 7. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 9. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 37. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 11. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 2. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 84. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 86. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 86. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 87. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 90. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Cou rts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 91. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 92. This term paper on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict was written and submitted by user Braeden Booker to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Speech Essay essays

Free Speech Essay essays Tom Metzger the president of White Aryan Resistance (WAR) and his son John Metzger have taught hate against blacks and other races as well such as Jews. Dave Mazzella was the Vice President of War and he also have taught hate to people generally white. Of what Dave, Tom and John said about hate Ken Death Mieske and few other people that was with him have killed a black man. His name was Malugeta Seraw a young Ethiopian immigrant was beaten by a baseball bat to death. Mr. Seraws family have refused to see what happened to Malugeta Seraw and they have sued the Metzgers or WAR that if they were responsible for sayings that they said. So therefore, is the Metzgers protected against the 1st Amendment, freedom of speech. Tom Metzger should be found liable in the death of Mr. Seraw. Tom and his son John did spread hatred towards other races especially blacks. He is a racist man as he laughed about everything in the trial. I know that hate is always inside of people like Mazzella and Death but their minds were taken by the Metzgers. Thanks to them they motivated them to hate and motivated Death to kill Mr. Seraw. Of course there is no connection to the killing with the Metzgers and Death. They both laughed about a comic illustration about blacks, which says they will loot your house and rape your wife. They have really spread a lot of hate throughout radios, articles and tapes. Of what they published about blacks in an article they really put hate words about them. If I was to read that article of course it would be tempting to do and hate against a black person. But really Im not that kind of person who would hate against anybody. Of course there are some people that I hate but thats because of who they are, they are just like the Metzger. Always hate on their mind which I do not find funny and interesting. Tom has said dont get mad, just get even af...

The European Union Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The European Union - Research Paper Example In these trade affairs, the six nations involved were not exposed to tariffs and quotas and hence this encouraged the trade. As time passed, the six countries involved in the trade formed an economic union. This treaty of Paris encouraged the formation of an executive council, a common assembly and a court of justice. This group of administrative bodies was limited in terms of the powers it wielded but it promoted the organization and of the European industry (Smith 26). The treaty of Paris hence laid the foundation for the formation of a stable and prosperous unified Europe. More treaties were later signed and this promoted the trade between the six countries involved as the treaties increased cooperation. The treaties that came after the formation of the treaty of Paris were called the Rome treaties and paved the way for the creation of the European Economic Community and the EURATOM. The reason for the creation of EURATOM was to allow for the usage of atomic energy in a manner tha t promoted peace. In the year 1968 after the ratification of the Merger Treaty, the European Economic Community was transformed into the European community. Development of the Union As time passed, the European community continued to assert it authority throughout Europe. At a time around 1970, the European Community had already strengthened its authority in the economies of the nations who were already in European community. Growth in the European community is evident whereby the European court of auditors was formed at a place called Luxemburg in the year 1977. The establishment of the European monetary system two years later in the year 1977 later followed this change. The two newly established organizations as part of the European community were responsible for the regulating the currencies within the member countries. They also controlled and regulated the budgets of these member countries (Merino 46). In the year 1986, the member countries in the European community had increas ed to twelve in number. Thereafter, there was the formation of the single European act. The creation of this act ensured the total and ultimate integration of the economies and that all the policies among all member nations were standardized especially on issues concerning the environment, employment and health. Among the greatest breakthroughs of the European community was the breaking down of the Berlin wall in the year 1989. This event took place in the beginning of the termination of communism in what was known as the Warsaw pact of nations (Jackson, Keller and Flood 870). The European community provided financial support to member countries that had been new acquisitions in community. This economic aid motivated nations to put effort towards creating a more stable and unified Europe by promoting international cooperation. In the year 1990, legislations and discussions led to the creation of the new European Union. The adoption of a new name also carried along some changes. Euro pean Coal and Steel Community In Europe, the European Coal and Steel Community were established under a six-nation alliance as an international organization. The ECSC Treaty was signd in 1951, in Paris and the founding members were France, the Benelux countries, Italy and Germany that came together as one community. The main purpose of the formation of this organization was the fact that it served the purpose of unifying

Digital multi-channel communication system Lab Report

Digital multi-channel communication system - Lab Report Example Immediately, the US embarked on a dominant move to out-compete the Russian mission and conquer the space. In a period of about ten years the exploration gathered the momentum. First; Alan shepherd went capricious in a Mercury shell while Genn John moved the globe 3 times in 1962 and finally Neil Armstrong set base on moon in 1969. Wilson S.K & Cioffi J (1991) Since this period, a mood of findings has been subdued over time, yet satellite has been relaying information from around the globe that has been termed as newsworthy. Satellite is an object that runs around a bigger object the reminiscent of a planet. The moon is a natural satellite, man on the extreme end has launched millions of satellites in space and they revolve around the Earth. The satellite consists of the broadcasting antenna, radio receivers as well as transmitters that enable the satellite to correspond with one or more opinion stations, known as control axis. Communications relayed to the satellite from a soil level are unlinked; messages transmitted from the outpost to Earth are down connected. Satellites have silver plates that recharge the power source stored in batteries. Some satellite uses fuel energy that changes compound energy into electricity. There are satellites that run on nuclear energy. Miniature propellers offer outlook, elevation, as well as forward mot ion parameters to develop and alleviate the satellite’s site in space. To supplement climate monopoly onboard, energy is needed. Specialized configurations accomplish the errands dispersed to the satellite. These mostly incorporate sensors competent of photographing a variety of signal lengths. Whereas ecological satellite demands optics, telecommunications satellites don’t. Ecological satellite remits statistics in binary format on a computer that translates the same numbers into geometric images. Gerven S.V and Compernolle D.V (2000) Communication satellite is a radio transmitter antenna that

Known Information about Dolphins Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Known Information about Dolphins Research - Essay Example They are relatively new creatures, appearing on the earth during the Miocene period, which was roughly ten million years ago. They give birth to single calves near the surface of the sea so that the calf would not drown. They are also literally half-asleep when they sleep. They are like these because they can’t afford to sleep with two brain hemispheres â€Å"shut off† because they will drown. They have to breathe air once in a while to do that.Dolphins have huge brains. They have even bigger brains than us humans. However, their intelligence centers are still smaller compared to human brains, that’s why we are still smarter compared to them. They also look like they smile all the time because of the way their mouths curve.  I have stumbled upon dolphin rights advocacies in my research about dolphins. As you would know, most dolphin species are considered endangered, that’s why they are protected. However, in some parts of the globe, dolphins are still h unted. They are hunted because of food, and they are tortured as well. In a certain place in Japan, there are almost 20 000 dolphins killed helplessly in a cove every year, just for commercial gain or for food. Yes, some places have dolphins as a delicacy. However, it is not safe to eat dolphins, even if they are tasty, since they have high mercury levels in their bloodstream. Constant exposure to dolphin meat would also make you at risk for mercury poisoning.Other people also hunt dolphins because for entertainment.

The purpose of cash budgets

The purpose of cash budgets Cash budget is an inflow and outflow of cash estimate prepared by management in a business for a specific period of time. It helps management in credit control and determines whether there is available fund for extending operations. The purpose of undertaking this report is to forecast a cash flow for the six months ending 30th June 2011, setting up healthy credit control system, and identifying the factors to be considered when planning to invest any forecasted surplus cash for Enron limited which currently faced financial difficulties in certain months of the year ending 31st December 2010. THE CASH BUDGET Cash budget is an estimation of a companys cash inflow and outflow, it is an accounting device used in monitoring and managing a business operating activities of immediate short term cash flow, a forecast of a businesss estimated cash receipts and payment over a period of time usually months and years. All budgets are related to the cash budget which is a forecast of the cash receipts and payments for the period, the importance of preparing a cash forecast cannot be over stressed for the availability of adequate cash resources is vital to successful business operation. Workers must be paid in cash, taxation liabilities must be settled in cash, suppliers may withhold materials unless paid promptly and so on. In most cases a monthly cash budget will be found adequate as settlements between debtors and creditors are conventionally made at the end of each calendar month (Joseph Baggott, 1973). PURPOSE OF CASH BUDGET In recent financial world, it is required by most business organisation to prepare cash budget prior to making expenditure related to any planned development or acquaintance of new assets. The cash budget determines firms ability settling its liabilities and expenses. secondly it helps in evading possible cash shortages and idle cash, thirdly it assist management in making decision in regards to its cash reserve for furthering its activities, fourthly it assist the management in achieving the objectives of the business in a specific period of time and lastly it enables the actual financial operation to be measured against the forecast of the business. LITERATURE REVIEW According to Garrison, Noreen and brewer 2006, most companies encounter problems when preparing their budget due to an increase in inflation rate, exchange rates of foreign currency, governmental policies and the economy situation while McCain 1999 states that most budgets are only provided for finances not the people and that finance alone is not enough in achieving improvements of company performance. Budget provides immediate control over the environment assists to master the financial phase of job and department and helps decipher problems prior to their occurrence (Ali Osman Gurbus, 2010). In light of the differences highlighted above, the company should try to provide room for any future inconveniences, human resource management and estimate future receipts and expenditure so as to be able to tackle problems before their occurrence. BUDGET COMMITTEE The budget committee consists of high level executives in charge of various functions (i.e. sales, production and purchasing). In financial procedure the functional head obtain an approval by presenting their budget to the committee, if the level of budget doesnt contain a reasonable performance, the functional head will required further changes in order to obtain an approval. The budget committee appoints a budget officer known as the accountant, whose take actions and coordinates the individual budgets of a company. (Colin Drury, 2000) The figure 1 chart below indicate the organization chart of a budget committee Figure 1 MASTER BUDGET This budget can be analyzed into operational budget and financial budget, it culminates and are summarized in a companys budgeted cash flow statement, budgeted profit and loss account and budgeted balance sheet statement of a business, it show the financial performance of a company and helps the manager to plan and achieve further for the future. The budgets are approved by the authority manager of a responsibility centre to carry out plans and then passed down through the company to the appropriate centres. (Willie Seal, Ray H. Garrison, Eric W. Noreen, 2006). Figure 2 below indicates the major parts of a master budget including the operating and the financial budget. Figure 2 PURPOSE OF MASTER BUDGET The master budget is used to integrate and coordinate the functional areas within a companys operating activities, provide a method of evaluating and controlling subsequently aspects of budget, and it serve as a communicative device in which the staff contribute effort to the overall goals within an organization process being inform of policies and plans, also helps motivates its employees to perform in line with the objectives. Master budget helps promote continuous performance of the companys business in planning process to supports the management to consider choices that reduce costs and improve value of customer. STAGES IN THE BUDGETING PROCESS The budget created and approved by the management move through set of procedure. In preparation of a budgeting process, the procedures in creating the budget differs from one organization to another and should be presented to the budget committee before it is finally agreed. Some important stages in the budgeting process are as follows: I. Communicating details of budget policy and guidelines : A long term planning process is the starting point in the preparation of a companys annual budget, the manager are responsible for preparing and communication of budget policy affected by the long term plans and provide important guidelines to the top manager to meet their objective. II. Determining the factors that restrict output: Company performance is restricted through limiting factors such as raw materials, labour and machine hour. The principal machine capacity of production restricts performance when the sales demand excess the available capacity and can be determined by the top management. III. Preparation of the sales budget: In many organizations the sale volumes and mix determine the level of operations that restricts a companys output, a sale forecast of a business has to be created before the sale budget can be prepared. IV. Initial preparation of budgets: The budgets are originated by the lower level of management and are coordinated by the higher level of management. The managers are responsible and participates in the preparation of meeting the performance of a companys budget and providing the top management for determining the content of budgets V. Negotiation of budgets: Once a budget has been prepared by the manager, it should be submitted to the superior to obtain an approval and acceptance. The budget should be agreed and negotiated by parties, the manager and the superior. This process is essential in the budgeting process as it determines whether or not a companys budget has effective tools of management. VI. Coordination of budgets: The budget is likely to be reviewed belonging to another which indicate and modify if the budget are out of balance, the chief accountant identify such disagreement and inform them to the managers attention and modifying such changes that should be made. During this revision process the manager ensure the budgeted profit and loss account, budgeted balance sheet statement and the cash budget are prepared to prove acceptance. VII. Final acceptance of the budget: After all the budgeted profit and loss account, budgeted balance sheet statement and the cash budget have been accepted , they are then summarized into the master budget to approve and then passed down through the company to the suitable responsibility centres. VIII. Budget review : The budgeting process does not stop until it have been agreed and on a regular basis there should be a comparison between the actual results and the budgeted results, which should be sent to the management for investigation of possible differences in reason. If the reasons of differences are within the areas of control of management, corrective measure should be taken and to ensure such inefficiencies not to occur in the future. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN INVESTING FORECASTED CASH SURPLUS BUDGET In Appendix 1 Enron Ltd cash budget indicates that sales are lower in January till March and increased in April upward to June. The cash surplus occurs in January, February and March which it is the excess of cash receipts over payment, but the cash deficits occurs from April to June which indicate available funds cash payments exceed the cash receipts. Therefore an investment in cash surplus can be on a short term basis in risk free securities and bank deposits which can easily be transformed into cash to settle off debts. Such investment chosen are relied on involved risk, size of existing amount, offered yield and consequences for early withdrawal. Since the company has been having financial difficulties in the previous year ending 31st December 2010 for a period of short time, it might be obscurity in obtaining long term sources of investment CREDIT CONTROL SYSTEM Management of cash flow is an essential part of accounting procedure in business in which management should take notice of when planning budget. Good credit control system must be set by an organization in order to ensure prompt payment from customers so as to be able to meet short term obligations and avoid the risk of being bankrupt. The following are the steps in which firms should undertake in order to achieve an effective credit control system. I. Set up a detailed credit control system: It allows company to identify the invoices that has been raised, paid and sent to customers. Each individual customer have a separate file with details indicating their contact name, business name and address, contact number and postal address. II. Credit check customers: Enron limited should approach customers bank or counterpart suppliers for reference to check on potential debtor credit worthiness before trading. III. Decide on payment terms: Enron limited should clearly display their payment terms on their invoice and ensure that customers are aware company credit policy. IV. Post invoices promptly: The Firm should send out invoices to respective customer on same date goods dispatched and make sure it is delivered to the right person and address. V. Deciding on reminder procedure: The Company should flag all their invoices that are due and send customers statement of account to each customer through e-mail or post to serve as reminders. Telephone calls should also be used to chase payments. VI. Make a Stop list for late-paying debtors: This is a list which the firm should prepare and send to appropriate employee in order to stop goods being supplied to owing customers. Debtors should also be aware of the list. VII. Organizing a sufficient overdraft: The Company should have available funds to cover their cash flows and consider paying up percentage of invoices in return for commission ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING OVERDRAFT FINANCE As it is clearly stated above, Enron Limited experienced cash shortfall in certain months of the year from its past operations indicating that it needs to outsource income in order to continue its operation. Bank overdraft is one of the method in which a company use to overcome its deficits in terms of any cash shortage arousal. An overdrawn is said to be when the company withdraws more than what it has in its bank account. It has some advantages and disadvantages .The main advantages of using bank overdraft is its flexibility in financing daily business activities and interest are only be paid on the overdrawn amount while its disadvantages are, interest rates are higher than loans and bank can request for repayment from company at any point in time leaving the company with no contingency funds if regularly overdrawn. LIMITATION OF CASH BUDGET Cash budget if appropriately prepared and implemented is very helpful to the business, but there are number of limitation associated to it that must be taken into account. First and foremost is uncertainty, budgeting involves extensive amount of forecasting the future which is not easy to have near correct estimate of companys cash receipts and expenditure, it might lead to undesirable condition e.g. losing customers in terms strict payment policy if there is no flexibility in applying the cash budget by the finance manager. Also employees who do not agree in some part of the budget will feel not liable for any inconveniences which may arise in the future, and last but not the least is expensive as it require substantial amount of money, time and effort. INTERPRETATION AND RECOMMENDATION In light of the study performed above Enron Limited had cash surpluses from January to March while experienced cash shortages from April to June (Appendix 1). All sales made by the company are on credit and payments are received in the second month following the month of sale. The financial consultants recommend Enron limited to introduce cash discount sales in order to encourage cash sale and set a good credit control system in order to have prompt payment from debtors and avoid the risk of bad debt. Cash budget should be prepared by the company in order to anticipate future receipts and payments but flexibility should be attached to it where necessary in order to avoid losing customers. Enron limited cash surpluses should be invested in short term basis in order to regain cash easily when needed while its cash deficit should be conquered by bank overdraft in so as to be able to continue its operation as interest rate is only charged on the overdrawn amount.

Ecstasy Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ecstasy, or 3, 4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine, was first synthesized and patented in 1914, by the German drug company Merck. The original purpose of the drug was to be an appetite suppressant, however in 1970 it was given to clinical depressed patients to open them up and talk about their feelings. Then in 1986, Ecstasy was determined to cause brain damage (http://faculity.washington.edu/chudler/mdma.html).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ecstasy is used at the party and rave scene for its effects on the emotional state of the user. The drug lowers the user’s inhibitions; it relaxes them. The drug also increases awareness and feelings of pleasure and joy while giving the user energy. Side effects of the drug includes: headaches, chills, eye twitching, jaw clenching, blurred vision, and nausea http://faculity.washington.edu/chudler/mdma.html). But the hangover ecstasy causes is said to worse then the hangover alcohol causes(â€Å"After the Rave: the Ecstasy Hangover).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The hangover produced by ecstasy causes the user to have memory impairments. This is due to the loss of serotonin, which will be discussed later on. The reduction in serotonine affects the brains capacity to learn and remember. The memory impairment has shown to be detected up until two weeks after use, but habitual users who have become addicted show damage for up until seven years. Research has shown that the impairment is not due to withdrawal, but is heavily dose- dependent (â€Å"Ecstasy’s Legacy†).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another problem with Ecstasy is the deadly combination it makes when mixed with other drugs and medications. Other drugs have harmed the body more so, because they use the liver enzyme CYP2D6 that metabolizes the drug. Thus the body can not rid itself of ecstasy and acts as if experiencing an overdose. The body then dies as if it has overdosed (â€Å"Deadly Combination†).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other drugs such as anti-depressants, trigger a surge of blood pressure when mixed with ecstasy. This surge causes the heart to be overworked and eventually burn out, leading to cardiac arrest and death. Molecular Mechanisms, another medication, block the neurotransmitters that clear the nervous system of ecstasy(â€Å"Deadly Combination†).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The nervous system is the area of the body most affected by... ... breathing trouble, and also comas. As with GHB and ecstasy, rohypnol works to destroy the body in the nervous system. Roypnol is a type of benzodiazepine, a sedative or an antianxiety medication. The benzodiazepine interacts with the receptors on neurons in the brain. Roypnol, like GHB targets the neurotransmitter GABA. The interaction between the GABA receptors and the roypnol inhibits neurons and reduces neuronal activity. The bonding of the receptors enhance the affect of GABA and begin to reduce brain activity. Taken over long periods of time, the affect of the hyperactivity of GABA will cease all brain activity (www.faculity.washington.edu/chudler/ghb.html).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drugs kill. That is the bottom line. It doesn’t matter the dosage of drug taken, because if the user becomes addicted the body is already poisoned with the toxins. Most drugs affect the nervous system. The nervous system is what keeps the body alive, to mess around with substances that are harmful to the system is like writing a death sentence. Drugs are not going to eliminated from society but people need to be kept informed about their decisions and the effects their choices have on them.